Sodium Carbonate Research Articles

Moisture-induced power generator fabricated on a lateral field-excited quartz resonator

We fabricated a moisture-induced power generator on a lateral field-excited quartz resonator to simultaneously measure changes in mass and voltage generation during water vapor adsorption. Circularly interdigitated gold electrodes were vacuum deposited on the top surface and used to measure changes in mass, and two symmetric semicircular gold electrodes were vacuum deposited on the bottom surface and used to measure changes in voltage generation. After coating a thin film of a mixture comprising sodium alginate, carbon black, and polyvinyl alcohol (SCP) on the top surface, an electric field was applied to create a concentration gradient of sodium ions between the interdigitated electrodes. The changes in the resonant frequency and voltage generation of the SCP-coated quartz resonator were measured simultaneously under various relative humidity conditions. The results revealed, for the first time, three distinct voltage-generation regions during moisture adsorption: (i) a region of negligible voltage generation, (ii) that of an increase in voltage generation, and (iii) that of a decrease in voltage generation.

The role of soil dispersivity and initial moisture content in splash erosion: Findings from consecutive single-drop splash tests

Dispersive soil is commonly associated with hydraulic erosion due to its tendency to disperse when in contact with water. Nevertheless, the erosion process of dispersive soil remains poorly understood. This study aims to explore the influence of dispersivity and initial moisture content on the splash erosion of dispersive soil, which is a crucial stage of hydraulic erosion. Consecutive single-drop splash tests were conducted on artificially prepared dispersive soil (made by adding sodium carbonate to the soil) with varying dispersivity levels and moisture contents. A high-speed and a single-lens reflex (SLR) camera were employed to capture the process of erosion in exquisite detail. The results demonstrated the significant influence of dispersivity on splash erosion. At moisture content below 20%, increased dispersivity weakened the splash erosion effect, leading to reduced infiltration, splashed soil mass, crater volume, and depth. Conversely, when the initial moisture content reached 20% or saturation, intensified dispersivity exacerbated splash erosion. Dispersivity also increased the sensitivity of the soil splash process to changes in moisture content. Dispersive soil exhibited greater sensitivity compared to non-dispersive soil, affecting the mass of splashed soil, soil-water mixture droplets area, water-soil mass ratio, and particle ejection distance. Dispersivity also caused splashed particles to fragment, resulting in more soil-water mixture droplets and a greater splash distance. Furthermore, dispersivity reduced infiltration ratio and increased runoff yield after erosion events, indicating a higher risk of transporting splashed soil particles through runoff. These insights contribute to erosion models and have practical applications in managing dispersive soil.

The Response of Hormones, Reactive Oxygen Species and Nitric Oxide in the Polyethylene-Glycol-Promoted, Salt–Alkali-Stress-Induced Embryo Germination of Sorbus pohuashanensis

Polyethylene glycol can abrogate plant seed dormancy and alleviate salt–alkali stress damage to plants, but its role in embryonic dormancy abrogation and germination in Sorbus pohuashanensis is not yet clear. The mechanism by which polyethylene glycol promotes the release of embryonic dormancy may be related to the synthesis and metabolism of endogenous hormones, reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen. In this article, germination in indoor culture dishes was used, and the most suitable conditions for treating S. pohuashanensis embryos, with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), were selected. Germination was observed and recorded, and related physiological indicators such as endogenous hormones, reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen were measured and analyzed to elucidate the mechanism of polyethylene glycol in alleviating salt–alkali stress in S. pohuashanensis embryos. The results showed that soaking seeds in 5% PEG for 5 days is the best condition to promote germination, which can increase the germination rate of embryos under salt–alkali stress by 1–2 times and improve indicators such as germination speed and the germination index. Polyethylene glycol led to an increase in gibberellin (GA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), ethylene (ETH), cytokinin (CTK), nitric oxide (NO), soluble protein and soluble sugar in the embryos under salt–alkali stress; increased activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), nitrate reductase (NR) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the embryos; a reduction in the accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Therefore, it is suggested that the inhibitory effect of polyethylene glycol on the salt–alkali-stress-induced germination of S. pohuashanensis embryos is closely related to the response of endogenous hormones, reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide signalling.

Physicochemical properties, the digestible and resistant starch content of chestnut flour with different particle sizes

Abstract In this study, chestnuts were processed into flour, and the obtained chestnut flour (CF) was passed through a sieve with an aperture size of 212 µm. Then the physicochemical properties, digestible and resistant starch contents of CF1 (<212 µm), CF2 (≥212 µm), and commercial chestnut flour (CCF) were determined. It was found that CCF had the highest values in terms of proximate composition, total soluble polyphenol content (891.25 mg GAE/100 g), and antioxidant activity (ABTS: 1552.11 mg TE/100 g, DPPH: 2003.01 mg TE/100 g). On the other hand, CF1 was superior in terms of resistant starch content (39.31 g/100 g, dw) (p < 0.05). The resistant starch content of CF1 was approximately 1.5-fold and 3-fold higher than CCF and CF2, respectively. Furthermore, the rapidly digestible starch content of CF1 (2.1 g/100 g, dw) and CF2 (0.93 g/100 g, dw) was quite lower than CCF (12.64 g/100 g, dw) (p < 0.05). Moreover, CF1 exhibited lower (p < 0.05) water, alkaline water, and sodium carbonate retention capacities, which make it a potential good flour for cookie and cracker production. In contrast, CF2 could be evaluated as a good ingredient for noodle-type foods due to its lower water solubility index. Considering the least gelation concentrations of samples, it was seen that CF1 (% 10) could also be valorized as a thickening or gelation agent in the food industry, as well as CCF (% 6).

Investigation on the anti-carbonation properties of alkali-activated slag concrete: Effect of activator types and dosages

In this paper, three alkaline activators, namely sodium hydroxide (SH), calcium oxide and sodium carbonate (COSC), calcium hydroxide and sodium sulfate (CHSS), and the influence of different alkali equivalents on the carbonation resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC) were investigated. By testing the mechanical properties at different carbonation ages of AASC with three types of activators at varying alkali equivalents (4%, 6%, and 8%), along with the changes in carbonation depth, this study aims to characterize hydration products and porosity through microstructural analysis. The objective is to explain the mechanism by which carbonation affects the AASC structure. The findings showed that the carbonation rate (i.e., the growth rate of the carbonation depth) of AASC was CHSS > COSC > SH when the exciter dosages were the same, and the carbonation rate of all samples tended to slow down as the alkali components increased. Calcite and spherulite were the calcium carbonate morphologies after SH, COSC, and CHSS carbonation according to XRD, TG/DSC, and pore structure tests; the calcium carbonate content decreased with increasing alkali equivalent after carbonation. Since the pore-increasing effect of carbonation due to the destruction of C–S–H is weaker than the filling effect produced by calcium carbonate, the total pore volume of SH, COSC, and CHSS decreased due to the activator effect after carbonation. Specifically, the calcium carbonate created by carbonation repairs pores and cracks of matrix, but its presence also reduces the calcium hydroxide concentration, leading to a decrease in the alkalinity of the pore solution, which disrupts the structure of the hydration products and loosens the matrix. The focus is on which aspect is more decisive. Interestingly, small pores however decreased, while there was an increase in larger pore sizes resulting in a change in pore size distribution. However, this negative impact on pore distribution decreased with increasing alkali dosage.

Appraisal of groundwater suitability and hydrochemical characteristics by using various water quality indices and statistical analyses in the Wadi Righ area, Algeria

ABSTRACT This assessment research focuses on the hydrochemical characteristics and groundwater suitability in the Wadi Righ region, in southern Algeria. The statement of the problem revolves around determining water quality using various indices including Permeability Index (PI), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC),Water Quality Index (WQI),Sodium Percentage (Na%), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment's Water Quality Index (CCME WQI), Magnesium Hazard (MH), Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI), and Kelly Index (KR). Additionally, statistical methods were utilized to establish correlations between these indices and chemical elements. The working method involved investigating hydrochemical parameters in Wadi Righ's groundwater and analyzing 52 samples. Quantitatively, the results indicate that water quality, as assessed by the water quality indices, was categorized as very poor and unsuitable overall, with lower quality observed particularly in the central and southern regions. However, groundwater demonstrated excellence and suitability for irrigation purposes. Qualitatively, the findings suggest that there are significant relationships among irrigation suitability indices, as indicated by Pearson correlation analysis. These relationships stem from shared inputs and hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater. This qualitative analysis reinforces the quantitative findings and provides insights into the underlying factors influencing groundwater quality and suitability for irrigation in the Wadi Righ region.

Kinetic Resolution of Cyclic Tertiary Alcohols with Lipase A from Candida Antarctica

AbstractEnzyme‐catalyzed acylative kinetic resolution (KR) and dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR) of racemic primary and secondary alcohols have been widely reported to produce esters with high enantiomeric purity. In contrast, similar KRs of tertiary alcohols have been reported for only a limited range of substrates and require prolonged reaction times of several days. To gain deeper insight into the substrate scope and increase the process efficiency, we examined the reaction conditions using commercially available immobilized lipase A from Candida antarctica and found that the addition of the heterogeneous, inorganic base sodium carbonate significantly increased the reaction rate while maintaining high enantioselectivity. The use of vinyl hexanoate as the acyl donor provided esters that were stable during chromatography purification. The optimized reaction conditions were then successfully applied to a range of cyclic tertiary alcohols containing tetralin, dihydroindene, chromane, and thiochromane skeletons having, in part, a substituent on the aromatic ring. In this study on the structure–reactivity relationship of enzymatic KR‐type reactions, we achieved >30 % conversion for various tertiary alcohols in 24 h at 25 °C, producing optically active esters with 88–99 % ee.

Decolorization of C.I. Reactive Blue 78 dyeing wastewater in the chitosan-gelatin composite copper polymer/sodium persulfate system

Chitosan-gelatin composite copper polymer (CG for short) was prepared as an adsorption catalyst. The CG was combined with sodium persulfate to construct a heterogeneous Fenton-like system, which was applied to the decolorization of C.I. Reactive Blue 78 dyeing wastewater. The effects of sodium persulfate, CG, temperature, initial dyeing wastewater pH value and additives ( sodium chloride, sodium carbonate) on the decolorization were investigated. The results show that the decolorization percentage of 0.1g/L C.I. Reactive Blue 78 dyeing wastewater can reach 93.84% under the conditions of sodium persulfate dosage of 0.3g/L, CG dosage of 0.8g/L, decolorization at 40 °C for 30min. At the same time, the catalytic system has the characteristic of good decolorization effect on C.I. Reactive Blue 78 dyeing wastewater within a wide pH values range of 3~9. Even for dyeing wastewater containing 0.4g/L high concentration C.I. Reactive Blue 78, the decolorization percentage can reach over 90% after decolorization at 40 °C for hours. Moreover, CG can be reused. After repeated use of CG four times, the decolorization percentage of C.I. Reactive Blue 78 dyeing waste remains above 90%. In addition, the weight loss rate of CG after each decolorization is less than 12%. However, the presence of sodium chloride and sodium carbonate in the dyeing wastewater is not conducive to the decolorization of C.I. Reactive Blue 78 by the system.

Atomic surface of silicon wafers induced by grafted silica nanoparticles and sodium carbonate

Atomic surface of silicon (Si) wafers is highly desired for integrated circuit (IC) industry. To meet this demand, traditional chemical mechanical polishing usually employs noxious slurries with complex compositions, containing oxidant, dispersant, inhibitor, surfactant, etc., resulting in the pollution of the environment and high-cost post-treatments. To settle this challenge, a novel green chemical mechanical polishing was developed, only including grafted silica nanoparticles and sodium carbonate. After CMP, surface roughness Sa of 0.219 and 0.247 nm are achieved on Si wafers using amine and methyl modified nanoparticles, respectively, corresponding to material removal rate (MRR) of 132.53 and 84.82 nm/min. Amino-modified nanoparticles increase 18.2 % MRR, and methyl modified ones reduce 24.4 % MRR, compared with those of unmodified nanoparticles. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy reveals that amino-grafted nanoparticles have strong improvement for chemical reactions during CMP. Density functional theory calculations garner the electrostatic potential energy of 4.884 and 6.753 eV for amine and methyl-modified nanoparticles, respectively, corresponding to high and low effects for MRR. This work provides a new avenue to develop novel green simple CMP for Si wafers, reducing the pollution and cost for post-treatments.

A Cost-Effective Slag-Based Mix Activated with Soda Ash and Hydrated Lime: A Pilot Study

A Cost-Effective Slag-Based Mix Activated with Soda Ash and Hydrated Lime: A Pilot Study

Enrichment of valuable metals from silver tailings using the alkali roasting-leaching method

To solve the tailings accumulation and mineral resource scarcity issues, this study uses silver tailings as a raw material and sodium carbonate roasting followed by water and acid two-step leaching process to investigate the enrichment of copper, cobalt, and lead. Based on the identification of occurrence forms of copper, cobalt, and lead in the silver tailings, the process parameters of the Na2CO3 roasting and acid leaching were optimized. The silver tailings were mixed with sodium carbonate at a mass ratio of 1:1.3 and roasted at 750 °C for 30 min, and the roasted clinker was leached using water at 80 °C for 15 min. The water leaching residue was then leached using H2SO4 acid at a concentration of 3 mol/L, a liquid–solid ratio of 10 mL/g, and at room temperature for 3 min. We finally obtained leaching efficiencies of 97.02 % and 86.45 % for copper and cobalt, respectively; 79.17 % of lead went into the acid leaching residue. The copper and cobalt were significantly enriched in the polymetallic enriched ore powder at 10.76 and 7.12 times the content in the tailings, respectively, reaching industrial grade that could be used as a new type of ore raw material for the extraction of copper and cobalt. Lead was enriched in the acid leaching residue at a content of 7.61 times that of the tailings and was mixed with the tailings to be further roasted and leached to enrich the lead. These results provide a theoretical foundation for the full resource utilization of metallic tailings.

Liquid-phase microextraction approach using supramolecular solvent formed in aqueous systems based on di(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid salt: Spectrophotometric determination of antipyrine in saliva

In this study, di(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid salt was investigated as a double-chain anionic surfactant for supramolecular solvent formation in a liquid-phase microextraction procedure for the first time. Inorganic electrolytes (sodium salts) were shown to be coacervation agents, due to their salting-out property in solution of sodium di(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate, obtained by deprotonation of the acid. The physico-chemical properties of the newly synthesised solvents were studied. Sodium carbonate and sodium phosphate were found to be the most suitable coacervation agents, due to their alkaline nature and low viscosity of the supramolecular solvent phases they produce. The extraction ability of the novel solvent was demonstrated in liquid-phase microextraction of a colored derivative of antipyrine from saliva for further spectrophotometric determination. The extraction recovery was found to be 70 %. The proposed green sample preparation technique enabled the exclusion of traditional toxic solvents and reduction of reagent consumption. The satisfactory analytical performance of the procedure was validated with real sample analysis. The calibration graph was linear over the concentration range of 0.03 to 0.5 mmol/L. The limit of detection (3σ) and limit of quantification (10σ), calculated from blank tests, were 0.01 and 0.03 mmol/L, respectively.

Oral sericin ameliorates type 2 diabetes through passive intestinal and bypass transport into the systemic circulation

Ethnopharmacological relevanceBoiled silkworm cocoons have been used to treat 'Xiaoke disease' (diabetes mellitus) recorded in Chinese medicine for over 800 years. In recent years, it has been found that the active substance silk sericin (SS) has therapeutic benefits in treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). SS promotes pancreatic islet signalling, the proliferation of pancreatic islet cells, and insulin secretion. It is inferred that SS enters the bloodstream after oral administration and plays a role in the body's circulation. As a natural protein, SS needs to resist digestion by proteases in the gastrointestinal tract and cross the gastrointestinal barrier after oral administration. It is currently unclear how SS crosses the gastrointestinal barrier and whether it exerts therapeutic effects on T2DM by entering the circulation. Aim of the studyTo study how SS crosses the gastrointestinal barrier and whether it enters the body circulation to exert a therapeutic effect on T2DM. Materials and methodsSS was extracted from silkworm cocoons using an alkaline method with sodium carbonate. The antidigestive capacity of SS was detected using SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis experiments. The mode of uptake and translocation of orally consumed SS in vivo was analysed using the AP-side to BL-side and BL-side-AP-side translocations, apparent Permeability coefficient(Papp), and Exocytosis rates(ER). The study compared the differences between the adSS group and the adSS+EDTA group by using Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA) to separate the tight junctions between Caco-2 cells. The aim was to analyse whether the transport mode of oral filaggrin proteins in vivo could be absorbed by bypass transport. By administering SS through oral and intraperitoneal injection to type 2 diabetic mice, we measured its concentration in the blood, as well as blood glucose and insulin levels, to determine its effectiveness in treating diabetes and its ability to enter the body's circulation for treatment. ResultsThe molecular weight of SS decreased from 10k∼25kDa to 10k∼15kDa after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal fluid digestion, indicating its good antidigestive properties. The apparent Papp was greater than 1×10-6 cm·s-1 , and the ER was between 0.5 and 1.5, indicating that adSS was well-absorbed and mainly passively transported. The Caco-2 cell model showed that the addition of EDTA promoted the transport of adSS, resulting in significantly larger Papp and ER values, indicating that adSS was absorbed by bypass transport. After oral administration of SS, the concentration of SS in the blood was lower than after intraperitoneal injection, which is 60% of intraperitoneal administration. Mice with a T2DM model who were administered SS for 5 weeks showed significant improvement in insulin resistance and glucose tolerance. Additionally, the pancreatic tissue appeared more regular. In the treatment of T2DM, injections of SS have been shown to be more effective than oral administration. Both oral and intraperitoneal injections have been partially involved in the circulation. ConclusionsSS is enzymatically cleaved by proteolytic enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract. The smaller molecules are partially absorbed into the body's circulation through passive and paracrine transport, exerting a therapeutic effect on T2DM.

The impact of contamination on audible noise in AC transmission lines

The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of accumulated pollutants on the surface of a 1000 kV AC transmission line in a specific location in China on its audible noise generation. The line with diatomaceous earth, kaolin, and other pollutants attached to it is modeled by using finite element software, and the study results indicate that the conductivity of the material plays a significant role in influencing the audible noise. In addition, diatomaceous earth has the least effect on the amplitude and lateral attenuation of audible noise, and sodium chloride and carbon powder have the greatest effect. The research in this paper can be used for the reason that dirt particles affect the magnitude of audible noise and these findings offer valuable insights for the management of audible noise.

Determination of CO2 diffusion coefficient in sodium carbonate solutions and implications for decarbonization kinetics

Sodium carbonate solution is a promising carbon capture absorber due to its low cost, rich content, environmental friendliness, and low heat requirement for regeneration, but its large-scale application is limited by its low diffusion coefficient and thus unsatisfied chemical absorption kinetics. Most importantly, the diffusion coefficient parameters of CO2 absorption into sodium carbonate solutions at different concentrations and temperatures are lacked in the existing literature, which leads to a certain bias in the understanding of its absorption kinetics. Based on this, in this paper, a molecular dynamics simulation method was used to calculate the diffusion behavior of CO2 in sodium carbonate solution at different parameters and compared with the existing fitting equations in the literature. The data calculated from literature presented a severe overestimation of diffusion coefficient in low temperature solvent, underestimation of diffusion coefficient in high temperature solvent. The maximum deviation between our simulated data and calculated data of fitted formula in literature exceeded 30%. Based on this, a new fitting formula was proposed in this paper using the temperature adjusted method. The results showed that the maximum error between simulated data and fitted new formula is 24.82%, AARD, SD, RMSD are only 9.21%, 11.13%, and 11.15% respectively. The maximum absolute error was 11.73%, AARD, SD, RMSD are only 4.55%, 5.53%, and 5.53% for CO2 mass transfer kinetics calculation, which significantly contributes to the accuracy of carbon capture process calculations.

Crystallization of battery-grade lithium carbonate with high recovery rate via solid-liquid reaction

Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) stands as a pivotal raw material within the lithium-ion battery industry. Hereby, we propose a solid-liquid reaction crystallization method, employing powdered sodium carbonate instead of its solution, which minimizes the water introduction and markedly elevates one-step lithium recovery rate. Through kinetic calculations, the Li2CO3 solid-liquid reaction crystallization process conforms by the Avrami equation rather than shrinking core model, which means the dissolution rate of Na2CO3 is the most important factor affecting the reaction process. The effects of reaction conditions such as temperature and stirring speed on the Li2CO3 precipitation behavior were evaluated. The results indicated that temperature is a most essential parameter than other reaction conditions or stirring speed. The exceptional 93% recovery of Li2CO3 at 90 °C with a remarkable purity of 99.5% was achieved by using 1.2 molar ratio of Na2CO3/Li2SO4. This method provides a new idea for the efficient preparation of battery-grade Li2CO3.

Groundwater Assessment for Sustainable Development in the Wadi Al-Hamd Basin, Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah, KSA

This study relied on well monitoring many drilled wells data in the Wadi Al-Hamd Basin to determine water level and chemical properties from field measurements. The characteristics of groundwater must be assessed in terms of present and future eases and stresses to ensure sustainable development. Hydrogeological, hydrochemical, groundwater quality indices and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data sets have been integrated to assess the groundwater aquifer in the study area. To implement this work, we measured the depth to the water table from eighty-eight drilled wells. Also, the major ions were determined from 82 water samples to evaluate the physicochemical properties, groundwater facies, and controlling mechanisms using diagrams such as the modified Piper proposed by Chadha, Total Ionic Salinity (TIS), and Gibbs. In this study, five irrigation water quality indicators (IWQI), including total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), potential salinity (PS), magnesium hazard (MH), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) have been determined to assess the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. Based on the findings of this study, groundwater flows from the southeast and northwest to the west and south, respectively. In this basin, 56% of water samples have TDS greater than 2000 mg/L, while 62% of water points are categorized as Na-Cl water type, which indicates that evaporation and rock–groundwater interaction influenced groundwater quality evolution. Almost 87% of samples were rated good to excellent for irrigation use with respect to SAR. On the other hand, all water points are suitable for irrigation based on RSC. Likewise, groundwater is suitable for irrigation purposes despite the relatively high PS levels (>5 meq/L in about 49% of samples) and some small spots with high levels of MH (>50% in about 12% of samples), especially in the southern and central portions of the studied basin.

Addition of sodium carbonate to reinforce unglazed ceramic tile

Nowadays, the study of the improvement of mechanical properties is of great importance in the ceramic industry. The strenuous demand to which industrial processes are subjected leads to the search for new raw materials in the production lines that transfer superior characteristics to the finished product, standing out in the search for non-synthetic raw materials of mineral origin that contribute greater savings when added to the manufacturing process of the material. This study is focused on the use of sodium carbonate as an alternative raw material in the process of making ceramic tiles, sodium carbonate was obtained from two sources, one synthetic (soda ash) and the other mineral (trona). Within the research, additions of 0.15, 0.30, 0.45% of soda (Na2CO3) and 0.30, 0.60 and 0.90% of trona were made in the formulation of the ceramic body and properties such as density, compressive strength and modulus of rupture were evaluated. The results obtained indicate an improvement of up to 65% in the compressive strength when adding 0.9% of the trona and a 30% increase in the modulus of rupture thanks to the insertion of sodium carbonate.

Assessment of hydrochemical characteristics and trace metals of Punpun River water – a tributary of River Ganga

Abstract This manuscript presents the first inventory of dissolved ions (cations and anions) and trace metals (Pb, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) in the Punpun River water to assess its irrigational suitability, pollution sources and hydrogeochemical processes. For this, the physicochemical parameters and trace metals in river water were analysed in the pre- and post-monsoon seasons. The results showed that the concentrations of cations and anions were in the order Ca2+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+ and HCO3− > SO42- > Cl− > NO3− > PO43-, respectively, in both the pre- and post-monsoon seasons. However, trace metal concentration in pre- and post-monsoon followed the trend of Pb > Mn > Cr > Ni > Cu > Zn > Co and Pb > Ni > Mn > Cr > Zn > Co > Cu, respectively. The results reveal that combined effects of rock weathering and evaporation-concentration influence hydrochemistry along with anthropogenic factors like industrial effluents, urban domestic sewage and agricultural runoff. Piper and Durov plots suggest that the river water is dominated by Ca–Mg–HCO3− type, and the processes were governed by simple ion dissolution and mixing. However, the Gibbs plot shows that silicate and carbonate weathering govern the hydrochemical properties. The irrigational indices like sodium adsorption ratio, %Na, residual sodium carbonate, Kelly's ratio, MH and trace metals indicate that most of the water samples are suitable for irrigation. Comprehensive pollution index values suggest that the river water quality ranges from sub-clean to slightly to moderately polluted.

Novel loading protocol combines highly efficient encapsulation of exogenous therapeutic toxin with preservation of extracellular vesicles properties, uptake and cargo activity

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have mostly been investigated as carriers of biological therapeutics such as proteins and RNA. Nevertheless, small-molecule drugs of natural or synthetic origin have also been loaded into EVs, resulting in an improvement of their therapeutic properties. A few methods have been employed for EV cargo loading, but poor yield and drastic modifications of vesicles remain unsolved challenges. We tested a different strategy based on temporary pH alteration through incubation of EVs with alkaline sodium carbonate, which resulted in conspicuous exogenous molecule incorporation. In-depth characterization showed that vesicle size, morphology, composition, and uptake were not affected. Our method was more efficient than gold-standard electroporation, particularly for a potential therapeutic toxin: the plant Ribosome Inactivating Protein saporin. The encapsulated saporin resulted protected from degradation, and was efficiently conveyed to receiving cancer cells and triggered cell death. EV-delivered saporin was more cytotoxic compared to the free toxin. This approach allows both the structural preservation of vesicle properties and the transfer of protected cargo in the context of drug delivery.Graphic